Language

Which actions and descriptions attach to people signalled as women and as men. Everything on this page is exploratory: many words are tested, and differences are reported with false-discovery-rate control, not as confirmed findings.

Share of a person's syntactic positions that are agent rather than patientAgent: subject of a non-copular verb. Patient: passive subject or direct object. Band: 95% CI.

Table view

Year	women	men
1900.0	81.2% (79.3%–83.0%) · n=1,694	76.5% (75.1%–78.0%) · n=4,396
1903.0	81.9% (80.0%–84.0%) · n=1,713	78.6% (77.2%–80.0%) · n=4,011
1906.0	81.0% (78.7%–82.9%) · n=1,732	79.5% (78.0%–80.9%) · n=3,924
1909.0	80.5% (78.2%–82.5%) · n=1,836	79.0% (77.6%–80.5%) · n=4,126
1912.0	81.0% (79.4%–82.7%) · n=2,095	76.9% (75.5%–78.3%) · n=3,880
1915.0	80.5% (78.4%–82.3%) · n=1,983	78.1% (76.6%–79.5%) · n=3,381
1918.0	80.9% (79.0%–82.9%) · n=1,894	79.5% (78.0%–80.9%) · n=2,893
1921.0	80.0% (78.3%–81.6%) · n=2,621	80.0% (78.6%–81.4%) · n=3,576
1924.0	81.4% (79.8%–83.0%) · n=2,212	78.7% (77.3%–80.2%) · n=3,571
1927.0	78.8% (77.1%–80.7%) · n=2,577	78.6% (77.3%–80.1%) · n=3,521
1930.0	79.9% (78.0%–81.4%) · n=2,739	79.7% (78.1%–81.2%) · n=3,298
1933.0	79.3% (77.7%–81.1%) · n=2,629	79.4% (78.1%–80.9%) · n=3,662
1936.0	81.2% (79.5%–82.6%) · n=2,669	79.6% (78.2%–80.8%) · n=3,780
1939.0	81.1% (79.3%–82.8%) · n=2,710	81.2% (79.9%–82.6%) · n=3,820
1942.0	80.1% (78.3%–81.9%) · n=2,179	79.4% (78.0%–80.7%) · n=3,242
1945.0	80.6% (78.6%–82.4%) · n=1,718	79.4% (77.8%–80.8%) · n=3,353
1948.0	78.0% (76.2%–79.7%) · n=2,226	79.1% (77.7%–80.6%) · n=3,907
1951.0	78.0% (76.1%–79.6%) · n=2,293	78.5% (77.0%–79.9%) · n=4,158
1954.0	78.9% (77.2%–80.7%) · n=2,007	80.1% (78.6%–81.3%) · n=3,743
1957.0	81.3% (79.5%–83.1%) · n=2,282	80.9% (79.6%–82.4%) · n=3,662
1960.0	76.2% (74.2%–77.9%) · n=2,317	81.2% (79.8%–82.7%) · n=4,005
1963.0	78.9% (77.0%–80.8%) · n=1,855	81.2% (79.8%–82.5%) · n=3,748

AmericanStories (Dell et al. 2023, CC-BY-4.0), built on Chronicling America (Library of Congress). 10,000 sampled articles per year, 22 years.

Agency trend: women −0.46 pp per decade (95% CI −0.65 to −0.27); men +0.44 pp per decade (95% CI +0.21 to +0.67).

Distinctive words

Weighted log-odds with an informative Dirichlet prior (Monroe, Colaresi & Quinn 2008), computed within each coarse section and pooled by inverse variance, so a word does not look “female” merely because it is common on the society page. Benjamini–Hochberg FDR at q = .05 across each word family.

Period

Verbs with the person as agent

More associated with women	n women	n men	z	FDR
entertain	1,199	71	16.08	q < .05
visit	2,758	586	13.53	q < .05
preside	306	71	11.87	q < .05
spend	3,627	969	10.52	q < .05
wear	175	51	6.48	q < .05
win	289	353	6.47	q < .05
defeat	44	23	6.37	q < .05
sing	202	86	6.21	q < .05
give	809	805	6.11	q < .05
accompany	234	64	5.25	q < .05
assist	139	36	5.21	q < .05
die	662	813	4.34	q < .05
present	173	167	4.10	q < .05
enter	240	167	3.94	q < .05
read	127	139	3.89	q < .05

More associated with men	n women	n men	z	FDR
say	1,721	8,785	−11.28	q < .05
move	187	283	−6.64	q < .05
sell	59	174	−6.25	q < .05
purchase	40	100	−5.10	q < .05
resign	36	160	−4.89	q < .05
preach	10	132	−4.85	q < .05
make	485	1,430	−4.42	q < .05
build	4	84	−3.99	q < .05
deliver	20	130	−3.82	q < .05
state	91	562	−3.69	q < .05
come	655	1,004	−3.57	q < .05
take	435	999	−3.44	q < .05
expect	71	129	−3.21	q < .05
get	124	497	−3.20	q < .05
retire	22	117	−3.07	q < .05

Verbs with the person as patient

More associated with women	n women	n men	z	FDR
visit	904	81	10.15	q < .05
include	309	51	6.57	q < .05
entertain	154	15	4.13	q < .05
assist	147	33	3.58	q < .05
marry	201	82	3.44	q < .05
elect	162	148	3.17	q < .05
honor	135	29	3.15	q < .05
maid	55	1	3.11	q < .05
survive	93	56	3.00	q < .05
spend	85	13	1.89	n.s.
grant	21	19	1.83	n.s.
present	126	66	1.71	n.s.
choose	47	27	1.68	n.s.
expect	68	31	1.62	n.s.
burn	22	13	1.52	n.s.

More associated with men	n women	n men	z	FDR
confine	59	71	−4.83	q < .05
employ	64	100	−4.40	q < .05
join	37	45	−3.55	q < .05
connect	9	44	−3.33	q < .05
call	231	448	−3.18	q < .05
graduate	29	56	−3.09	q < .05
know	55	165	−2.80	q < .05
transfer	5	22	−2.65	n.s.
locate	6	28	−2.57	n.s.
arrest	32	180	−2.57	n.s.
see	176	410	−2.41	n.s.
associate	8	32	−2.23	n.s.
ask	90	284	−2.17	n.s.
engage	21	43	−2.08	n.s.
wound	5	20	−2.04	n.s.

Adjectives modifying the person

More associated with women	n women	n men	z	FDR
second	73	9	3.30	q < .05
little	137	48	2.81	q < .05
national	41	8	2.06	n.s.
ant	44	4	2.05	n.s.
past	44	8	2.05	n.s.
first	76	34	1.64	n.s.
former	325	138	1.52	n.s.
worthy	22	4	1.33	n.s.
grand	39	10	1.29	n.s.
other	23	10	1.25	n.s.
present	31	8	0.96	n.s.
present	31	8	0.96	n.s.
poor	20	25	0.85	n.s.
poor	20	25	0.85	n.s.
third	20	6	0.81	n.s.

More associated with men	n women	n men	z	FDR
late	209	235	−4.83	q < .05
young	65	98	−2.48	n.s.
prominent	10	27	−2.41	n.s.
executive	9	18	−1.59	n.s.
chief	7	18	−1.58	n.s.
famous	8	23	−1.44	n.s.
retired	9	19	−1.36	n.s.
great	9	18	−1.26	n.s.
new	37	35	−1.17	n.s.
general	23	25	−0.88	n.s.
last	19	24	−0.86	n.s.
last	19	24	−0.86	n.s.
popular	19	15	−0.70	n.s.
popular	19	15	−0.70	n.s.
good	13	20	−0.64	n.s.

Nouns the person possesses

More associated with women	n women	n men	z	FDR
daughter	34	7	1.22	n.s.
daughter	34	7	1.22	n.s.
voice	20	10	1.11	n.s.
voice	20	10	1.11	n.s.
mother	151	48	1.11	n.s.
mother	151	48	1.11	n.s.
house	27	9	0.91	n.s.
house	27	9	0.91	n.s.
son	27	8	0.47	n.s.
son	27	8	0.47	n.s.
home	55	19	0.44	n.s.
home	55	19	0.44	n.s.
parent	160	54	0.21	n.s.
parent	160	54	0.21	n.s.
eye	16	23	0.19	n.s.

More associated with men	n women	n men	z	FDR
brother	46	29	−1.42	n.s.
brother	46	29	−1.42	n.s.
father	54	33	−1.04	n.s.
father	54	33	−1.04	n.s.
birthday	18	10	−0.75	n.s.
birthday	18	10	−0.75	n.s.
friend	18	15	−0.45	n.s.
friend	18	15	−0.45	n.s.
face	17	27	0.02	n.s.
face	17	27	0.02	n.s.
sister	96	35	0.17	n.s.
sister	96	35	0.17	n.s.
eye	16	23	0.19	n.s.
eye	16	23	0.19	n.s.
parent	160	54	0.21	n.s.

Verbs with the person as agent

More associated with women	n women	n men	z	FDR
visit	729	169	8.67	q < .05
entertain	256	22	7.36	q < .05
return	914	374	5.00	q < .05
spend	542	194	4.20	q < .05
write	79	59	3.54	q < .05
sit	31	29	2.73	n.s.
preside	30	5	2.03	n.s.
go	380	273	2.01	n.s.
recover	40	18	1.97	n.s.
live	43	41	1.96	n.s.
die	160	198	1.96	n.s.
leave	468	281	1.84	n.s.
play	24	11	1.60	n.s.
follow	15	13	1.51	n.s.
wear	22	11	1.49	n.s.

More associated with men	n women	n men	z	FDR
move	30	86	−6.13	q < .05
sell	16	72	−4.37	q < .05
resign	11	23	−2.86	n.s.
make	99	222	−2.79	n.s.
purchase	9	37	−2.69	n.s.
buy	5	23	−2.47	n.s.
say	309	932	−2.30	n.s.
get	21	75	−2.19	n.s.
put	9	39	−2.02	n.s.
come	202	266	−1.89	n.s.
begin	16	54	−1.75	n.s.
speak	14	42	−1.66	n.s.
expect	18	28	−1.66	n.s.
improve	18	18	−1.64	n.s.
take	84	169	−1.64	n.s.

Verbs with the person as patient

More associated with women	n women	n men	z	FDR
visit	140	11	4.07	q < .05
visit	140	11	4.07	q < .05
entertain	35	4	1.65	n.s.
entertain	35	4	1.65	n.s.
expect	22	5	1.06	n.s.
expect	22	5	1.06	n.s.
say	15	13	0.81	n.s.
say	15	13	0.81	n.s.
meet	24	21	0.66	n.s.
meet	24	21	0.66	n.s.
find	14	12	0.60	n.s.
find	14	12	0.60	n.s.
ask	23	51	0.27	n.s.
ask	23	51	0.27	n.s.
marry	40	22	0.25	n.s.

More associated with men	n women	n men	z	FDR
take	24	26	−1.04	n.s.
take	24	26	−1.04	n.s.
call	34	37	−0.91	n.s.
call	34	37	−0.91	n.s.
know	15	32	−0.85	n.s.
know	15	32	−0.85	n.s.
kill	11	15	−0.49	n.s.
kill	11	15	−0.49	n.s.
give	24	23	−0.48	n.s.
give	24	23	−0.48	n.s.
leave	14	16	−0.41	n.s.
leave	14	16	−0.41	n.s.
see	27	41	−0.39	n.s.
see	27	41	−0.39	n.s.
report	17	12	−0.32	n.s.

Verbs with the person as agent

More associated with women	n women	n men	z	FDR
entertain	357	18	7.80	q < .05
spend	871	220	3.73	q < .05
visit	531	133	3.24	q < .05
wear	38	6	2.60	n.s.
preside	54	14	2.59	n.s.
laugh	23	9	2.57	n.s.
accompany	60	9	2.34	n.s.
sing	52	14	2.23	n.s.
assist	39	8	1.93	n.s.
read	32	14	1.89	n.s.
give	208	125	1.69	n.s.
open	27	15	1.65	n.s.
win	53	15	1.59	n.s.
speak	50	39	1.52	n.s.
shake	15	12	1.45	n.s.

More associated with men	n women	n men	z	FDR
move	42	53	−4.39	q < .05
sell	17	33	−3.22	q < .05
resign	7	23	−2.91	n.s.
purchase	11	26	−2.71	n.s.
say	332	692	−2.61	n.s.
make	105	147	−2.02	n.s.
state	21	65	−1.93	n.s.
take	114	121	−1.90	n.s.
improve	18	14	−1.79	n.s.
come	186	165	−1.50	n.s.
refuse	4	22	−1.45	n.s.
pay	7	22	−1.42	n.s.
recover	18	16	−1.27	n.s.
expect	22	23	−1.24	n.s.
work	16	23	−1.22	n.s.

Verbs with the person as patient

More associated with women	n women	n men	z	FDR
visit	142	11	2.56	n.s.
visit	142	11	2.56	n.s.
give	33	4	1.49	n.s.
give	33	4	1.49	n.s.
assist	50	4	1.40	n.s.
assist	50	4	1.40	n.s.
include	57	6	1.29	n.s.
include	57	6	1.29	n.s.
entertain	38	4	1.12	n.s.
entertain	38	4	1.12	n.s.
marry	43	8	1.01	n.s.
marry	43	8	1.01	n.s.
present	24	4	0.60	n.s.
present	24	4	0.60	n.s.
meet	30	19	0.53	n.s.

More associated with men	n women	n men	z	FDR
confine	9	16	−2.90	n.s.
confine	9	16	−2.90	n.s.
call	47	21	−0.36	n.s.
call	47	21	−0.36	n.s.
tell	13	21	−0.17	n.s.
tell	13	21	−0.17	n.s.
see	39	32	−0.12	n.s.
see	39	32	−0.12	n.s.
ask	24	35	0.14	n.s.
ask	24	35	0.14	n.s.
take	30	15	0.23	n.s.
take	30	15	0.23	n.s.
say	14	12	0.27	n.s.
say	14	12	0.27	n.s.
meet	30	19	0.53	n.s.

Verbs with the person as agent

More associated with women	n women	n men	z	FDR
entertain	311	11	6.36	q < .05
preside	92	12	4.78	q < .05
visit	579	91	3.97	q < .05
spend	1,017	204	3.41	q < .05
assist	40	2	3.09	q < .05
wear	59	10	2.75	n.s.
win	74	61	2.75	n.s.
present	44	13	2.56	n.s.
give	181	106	2.53	n.s.
announce	99	42	2.21	n.s.
read	34	10	2.03	n.s.
sing	56	12	2.01	n.s.
enter	55	19	1.53	n.s.
accompany	65	12	1.52	n.s.
lead	26	23	1.45	n.s.

More associated with men	n women	n men	z	FDR
say	341	670	−3.04	q < .05
return	507	207	−2.55	n.s.
run	5	30	−2.20	n.s.
make	105	165	−2.16	n.s.
bring	15	39	−1.78	n.s.
write	21	44	−1.74	n.s.
tell	63	117	−1.60	n.s.
keep	4	23	−1.52	n.s.
believe	3	26	−1.50	n.s.
work	18	33	−1.34	n.s.
come	131	140	−1.32	n.s.
celebrate	47	24	−1.22	n.s.
get	28	92	−1.20	n.s.
arrive	109	48	−1.18	n.s.
take	97	127	−1.03	n.s.

Verbs with the person as patient

More associated with women	n women	n men	z	FDR
visit	159	14	2.61	n.s.
include	105	16	1.82	n.s.
include	105	16	1.82	n.s.
elect	45	21	1.32	n.s.
elect	45	21	1.32	n.s.
entertain	38	3	1.23	n.s.
entertain	38	3	1.23	n.s.
honor	35	4	0.90	n.s.
honor	35	4	0.90	n.s.
assist	33	7	0.83	n.s.
assist	33	7	0.83	n.s.
take	39	14	0.80	n.s.
take	39	14	0.80	n.s.
appoint	24	11	0.54	n.s.
appoint	24	11	0.54	n.s.

More associated with men	n women	n men	z	FDR
employ	19	22	−2.81	n.s.
confine	15	15	−2.10	n.s.
confine	15	15	−2.10	n.s.
succeed	10	15	−0.91	n.s.
succeed	10	15	−0.91	n.s.
accompany	29	15	−0.71	n.s.
accompany	29	15	−0.71	n.s.
ask	16	37	−0.51	n.s.
ask	16	37	−0.51	n.s.
see	28	35	−0.50	n.s.
see	28	35	−0.50	n.s.
give	19	14	−0.34	n.s.
give	19	14	−0.34	n.s.
know	9	17	−0.27	n.s.
know	9	17	−0.27	n.s.

Verbs with the person as agent

More associated with women	n women	n men	z	FDR
visit	881	108	6.57	q < .05
entertain	242	10	5.47	q < .05
preside	83	9	5.08	q < .05
announce	160	49	3.66	q < .05
wear	51	4	3.19	q < .05
spend	1,157	247	3.04	q < .05
present	78	33	2.95	q < .05
assist	34	4	2.41	n.s.
give	185	84	2.33	n.s.
read	28	10	2.05	n.s.
lead	44	19	2.04	n.s.
teach	31	15	1.77	n.s.
accompany	63	14	1.64	n.s.
enter	77	17	1.57	n.s.
call	146	48	1.44	n.s.

More associated with men	n women	n men	z	FDR
say	364	945	−7.09	q < .05
celebrate	44	32	−2.94	q < .05
arrive	71	49	−2.08	n.s.
retire	8	30	−1.89	n.s.
state	11	42	−1.87	n.s.
tell	69	134	−1.80	n.s.
fly	16	16	−1.56	n.s.
declare	6	31	−1.56	n.s.
resign	4	21	−1.48	n.s.
write	23	39	−1.40	n.s.
reply	6	19	−1.38	n.s.
suffer	12	18	−1.24	n.s.
start	9	21	−1.17	n.s.
get	22	46	−1.12	n.s.
take	88	97	−1.10	n.s.

Verbs with the person as patient

More associated with women	n women	n men	z	FDR
visit	452	23	5.61	q < .05
include	101	12	3.08	q < .05
elect	63	50	1.92	n.s.
elect	63	50	1.92	n.s.
assist	27	2	1.49	n.s.
assist	27	2	1.49	n.s.
entertain	35	2	1.41	n.s.
entertain	35	2	1.41	n.s.
call	60	11	1.40	n.s.
call	60	11	1.40	n.s.
honor	68	13	1.37	n.s.
honor	68	13	1.37	n.s.
appoint	23	12	0.95	n.s.
appoint	23	12	0.95	n.s.
present	37	13	0.94	n.s.

More associated with men	n women	n men	z	FDR
employ	14	21	−3.48	q < .05
graduate	11	15	−2.61	q < .05
bear	11	20	−2.01	n.s.
bear	11	20	−2.01	n.s.
take	24	17	−1.75	n.s.
take	24	17	−1.75	n.s.
ask	7	22	−1.72	n.s.
ask	7	22	−1.72	n.s.
give	17	11	−0.95	n.s.
give	17	11	−0.95	n.s.
name	26	30	−0.25	n.s.
name	26	30	−0.25	n.s.
see	26	11	−0.15	n.s.
see	26	11	−0.15	n.s.
accompany	30	13	−0.04	n.s.